Holy Scripture describes God as the Supreme Being (ens omnium excellentissimum) or as the absolutely Perfect Essence (Deut. 10, 17: "God of gods and Lord of lords"; 1 Tim. 6, 15. 16: "the blessed and only Potentate," ,μόνος δυνάστης), or simply as the Absolute Being (ens primum), who "is before all things" and by whom "all things consist," Col. 1, 17. At times Scripture applies the name god or gods to creatures (dii nuncupativi, λεγόμενοι θεοί), either because they perform real (John 10, 35 ; Ps. 82, 6) or supposed (Deut. 4, 28) divine functions, and are therefore vested either rightly or wrongly with divine authority (1 Cor. 8, 5, propter analogiam quandam, vel veram, vel fictam). Nevertheless Scripture distinguishes clearly between the so-called gods (dii nuncupativi) and the one, true, and living God, 1 Cor. 8, 5. 6; Matt. 19, 17. Magistrates (Ps. 82, 6) and idols (Deut. 4, 28) are indeed called gods (אֱלֹהִים θεοί), but God alone is Jehovah (יְהוָה nomen Dei essentiale et incommunicabile).
The names which Holy Scripture applies to the true God are not empty titles, but describe God according to His divine essence, attributes, and works. This is true especially of the essential and incommunicable name of God "Jehovah," which He Himself explains as "I Am That I Am" (Ex. 3, 14. 15) or as the eternal, unchangeable divine Being (Luther: "lauter Ist," that is, pure Being). This explains why that name is never applied to creatures. (Is. 42, 8: "I, Jehovah; that is My name.") The real pronunciation of the tetragrammaton is perhaps Yahweh (יְהוָה), but since the pronunciation Jehovah" has become current in the Church, it would be intolerable pedantry to insist upon the supposed "original pronunciation."
When we describe human beings, we ascribe to them both a nature and attributes. Just so Holy Scripture, accommodating itself to the laws of human thought and speech, ordinarily speaks of God as possessing both a divine essence and divine attributes. In other words, it speaks of God's attributes, such as omnipotence, grace, love, etc., as inhering in the divine essence. Nevertheless the attributes of God are not accidents (accidentia), but His very divine essence, since God is absolutely simple in His divine Being, Ex. 3, 14. 15. "The properties, or attributes, of God are His very essence. No accidents may be predicated of God." Or we may say: Since we cannot conceive of an absolutely simple being (ens simplex), God has graciously revealed Himself to us according to attributes.
In this way we gain of God an adequate conception, which, though incomplete, is essentially correct, 1 Cor. 13, 9-12. Of the divine attributes Gerhard writes (III, 84)1 : "The attributes exist inseparably in God; for as it is impossible that the essence of an object may be separated from the object itself, so also the attributes cannot be separated from God, since they are the very essence of God." Doctr. Theol., p. 122 And Calov (II, 222)2 : "If the attributes really differed from the essence after the manner of accidents, a composition in God would be predicated." (Ibid.) Our dogmaticians are therefore right in saying that "the divine attributes are distinguished from the divine essence, not really, but only according to our mode of conceiving." "Essentia et attributa in Deo non realiter, sed nostro concipiendi modo differunt; distinguuntur autem et ab essentia divina et inter se propter intellectus nostri imperfectionem. Attributa divina, quamvis in Deo non distincta, in nostris tamen conceptibus distinguenda sunt." Since, however, Scripture carefully distinguishes between the various attributes of God, the Christian theologian, too, must distinguish between them, as, for example, between divine justice and grace, divine wrath and love, etc. Where this distinction is not observed, the entire theology becomes false. (Cp. the denial of the Law on account of the Gospel.)
When treating the doctrine of the divine essence and attributes, the question has been debated: "In what sense are essence and attributes ascribed to God and to creatures?" The answer is: Not a) univocally (univoce), so that they belong to God and the creatures in precisely the same meaning, nor b) equivocally (aequivoce), so that the attributes when used of God have an entirely different meaning than when they are used of creatures, but c) analogically (analogice), so that the attributes ascribed to creatures bear an analogy, or resemblance, to the attributes of God; that is to say, the attributes belong rightly both to God and men, but not in the same manner nor in the same degree. When we say, "God lives, and man lives," or, "God loves, and man loves," we ascribe to God perfect, absolute, and independent life and love, but to man imperfect, relative, and dependent life and love. The same attributes which God has in Himself as His most perfect, divine essence man has from God as His free gifts, and not indeed as his essence, but as accidents, which may be lost. Col. 1, 17: "He is before all things, and by Him all things consist"; Acts 17, 28: "In Him we live and move and have our being." The basic difference between the Creator and the creatures determines also the difference in the possession of attributes. The importance of properly deciding the question is patent from the following: If we ascribe the essence and attributes to God and creatures univocally (Duns Scotus, t 1308), the essential difference between God and the creatures is denied, and the creatures are coordinated with God and made divine (pantheism). On the other hand, if we ascribe the essence and attributes to God and creatures equivocally (Peter Aureolus, t 1321; the Franciscans), it is impossible for us to know God (agnosticism), since then we cannot tell what really the attributes in God mean. (What does it mean when God is said to be Love? 1 John 4, 16.) However, if we ascribe the essence and attributes to God by way of analogy, or resemblance, then in our contemplation of QQd we rise from the imperfection of the human attributes to the absolute perfection of the divine, Is. 49, 15. Augustine says: "Condescendit nobis Deus, ut nos consurgamus."
The divine attributes have been divided into negative and positive, or quiescent and operative, or absolute and relative, or immanent and transient, etc. But no matter how we may classify the divine attributes, we must in every case acquire our knowledge of them only from Holy Scripture, never from reason or speculation. In other words, God Himself must inform us what we are to understand by divine omnipotence, divine love, divine grace, etc. Many pernicious errors have arisen from the fact that theologians endeavored to determine the divine attributes a priori, or from reason. For instance, on the basis of divine love errorists have denied divine justice (the necessity of Christ's vicarious atonement, Modernism, Unitarianism) and the possibility of eternal punishment (Russellism, Universalism). As the doctrine of the Holy Trinity, so also that of the divine essence and attributes is beyond reason, since God is absolutely incomprehensible; we know of God's attributes only so much as He Himself has revealed to us.
In more recent times, dogmaticians have classified the divine attributes according to God's relation (Bezogenheit zur Welt) or non-relation (Abgezogenheit zur Welt) to the world, or according to God's absolute essence (eternity, etc.), His absolute sovereignty (omnipotence, etc.), and His absolute goodness (love, etc.), or according to God's divine existence, knowledge, and will, etc. While some of these are quite helpful and commendable, the modern classifications in general improve very little on those of our older dogmaticians so far as their practical value is concerned. All the classifications of the divine attributes are more or less inadequate.
The negative attributes ar'e those by which all imperfections which we observe in creatures are removed from God, since nothing in any way imperfect can be ascribed to Him. They are also called quiescent (ἀνενέργητα), since they have no specific reference to the actions of God, or immanent (absoluta) attributes, since they describe the divine essence absolutely and in itself. These attributes are: divine unity, simplicity, immutability, infinity, immensity, eternity, omnipresence.
a. Divine unity (unitas) is the attribute of God by virtue of which the divine essence is absolutely single; not only undivided, but also indivisible. Unity is ascribed to God a) absolutely, that is, the divine essence is neither divided nor divisible, John 4, 24; Ex. 3, 14. 15, and b) exclusively, since besides God there is no God, Deut. 6, 4; 4, 35. Cp. Doctr. Theol., p. 118 ff.
b. Divine simplicity (simplwitas) is the divine attribute of God according to which He is truly and really uncompounded (not compounded of matter and form, of integral parts, of substance and accident, of nature and subsistence). Hollaz writes: "God is said to be one, not in kind (specie), but in number (numero), since He is a being entirely alone, not only in Himself undivided, but also indivisible because of the entire simplicity of the divine essence, as there is no composition in God." (Ex. 3, 14. 15: "I Am That I Am.") The attribute of spirituality, John 4, 24, is comprised in that of simplicity.
c. Divine immutability (immutabilitas) is the attribute of God according to which He is liable to no change whatever, neither as to existence (Rom. 1, 23; 1 Tim. 1, 17; 6, 16) nor as to accidents (Jas.l, 17) nor as to will or purpose (Num. 23, 19; Prov.19,21; Mal. 3, 6). If Holy Scripture ascribes to God change of mind (Gen. 6, 6; 1 Sam. 15, 11) or change of place (Gen. 11, 5), it does this in accommodation to our mode of perceiving. These passages do not assert that God is subject to change as men are (1 Sam. 15, 29), but must be understood in a manner becoming God (θεοπρεπῶς). Gerhard writes (I, 110): "The affections which Scripture ascribes to God do not prove any mutability of the divine essence; for those things which are spoken of anthropopathically (ἀνθρωποπαθῶς) must be understood in a sense becoming God (θεοπρεπῶς)." Scripture thus speaks of God in a twofold manner: a) as He is in Himself, immutable and incorruptible, forever exalted over space and time, 1 Sam. 15, 29 ; Ps. 90, 4; and b) as He accommodates Himself to our conception of space and time, 1 Sam. 15, 11; Gen. 11, 5. Nevertheless, wherever Scripture pictures God anthropomorphically or anthropopathically, this is not a mere modus loquendi, but a true description of God, though after our human mode of perceiving. In other words, when the immutable God is said to be angry or jealous (1 Pet. 5, 5) toward the wicked or gracious (Luke 1, 52. 53) to penitent sinners, we must regard Him precisely as these expressions describe Him, though in a manner conforming with His divine perfection. In Deum nulla cadit mutatio.
The question whether the work of creation or of incarnation changed the immutable God, Gerhard answers as follows (I, 124): "By no means; for in time He did that which from eternity He had decreed in His immutable will." The reason for this is evident. Th~ creation was not something occurring in God (pantheism), but rat: 1er something outside God (Christian dualism), namely, the calling into being of things that did not exist before, but had been determined by God from eternity (decree of creation). Neither was the incarnation any change in the divine essence, but the assumption of the human nature into the person of the λόγος,, as determined by God from eternity (decree of redemption).
d. Divine infinity (infinitas) is that attribute of God according to which He is contained within no bounds either of time (eternity) or of space (immensity). Scripture ascribes to God infinity a) as to His essence, Ps. 145, 3, and b) as to His attributes, Ps. 147, 5. Hence we say correctly that not only God in Himself (divine essence) is infinite, but that also His knowledge, power, wisdom, grace, love, etc., are infinite.
e. Divine immensity (immensitas) is that attribute of God according to which He cannot be measured by, or included in, any local confines, Jer. 23, 24; 1 Kings 8, 27. Quenstedt defines the divine immensity as "the interminable ubiety, by virtue of which God cannot but be everywhere in His own essence," or as "the absolute interminability of the divine essence." Since God cannot be measured by, or included in, anything finite, Is. 40, 15-17, we should not judge Him by our reason (Unitarians), but regard Him precisely as Scripture pictures Him, 1 Tim. 6, 16, i. e., as the divine Being who is exalted over all creatures.
f. Divine eternity (aeternitas) 1 absolutely so called (in opposition to "long time"), is that attribute according to which the divine essence is without beginning or end, without succession or change, Ps. 102, 27; 90, 2; Gen. 21, 33; Is. 40, 28; 1 Tim. 1, 17; Rev. 1, 4; etc. Scripture uses the doctrine of the divine attributes both for our warning and for our consolation. For when we oppose God, we oppose the one, immutable, infinite, immense, eternal divine Being whose wrath and punishment are endless, 2 Thess. 1, 9; and on the other hand, when we entrust ourselves to God, we are putting our confidence in the one, immutable, infinite, immense, eternal divine Being, whose love and mercy are equally endless, 1 Thess. 4, 17; 2 Cor. 5, 1.
In connection with God's divine eternity we may consider also His divine aseity (aseitas), according to which God is absolutely of Himself and independent of anything outside Himself, Rom. 11, 33-36. (Aseitas est attributumJ quo Deus liberrima ipsius causa est et nemini quidquam debet, sed ipse solus est rerum omnium Auctor.)
g. Divine omnipresence (omnipraesentia) is the attribute of God according to which He is illocally, but essentially, everywhere. Quenstedt: "God is actually present to all His creatures." With respect to God's omnipresence we must note the following: -
To Christ, according to His human nature, Scripture ascribes a local presence (presentia localis, Luke 2, 12), an illocal presence (praesentia illocalis, John 20, 19), and a repletive presence (praesentia repletiva, Eph. 1, 23; 4, 10 ).
In connection with the doctrine of the divine omnipresence a number of questions may be considered. The first is : "Is the universe infinite?" or: "Is there any space outside this universe?" On the basis of Scripture this question must be denied, since space belongs to creation and all creatures are in God, Col. 1, 17; Acts 17, 28. To predicate infinity of space would be tantamount to deifying the universe, which as a creature is finite. Deus dat loco et rebus, quae sunt in loco, suum esse. The second question is: "Is there in the divine manifestations of wrath or grace any special approach of the divine essence (special is approximatio essentiae divinae) f" In view of God's immensity this question must be answered in the negative, since the divine essence is never separated from the creatures, but is always present; yet as anthropopathic expressions such Scripture statements as John 14, 23; Gen. 11, 5 are to be considered not as a mere mode of speaking (modus loquendi), but as an assertion of truth which, properly (fhoneww~) understood, is designed for either our comfort or warning. The last question: 'CW as God essentially operative before Creation?" must be classified among the foolish questions, which are unprofitable and vain, Titus 3, 9. Since God has not revealed anything with respect to any creative work before this world was made, human speculation on this point is useless. Nevertheless, on the one hand, we must not regard God as ever having been essentially inoperative; on the other, we have no Scriptural ground to assume that God ever created a universe before this present world. The warning which applies from God's omnipresence is clear from J er. 23, 24; Ps. 139, 7 ff., the comfort from Ps. 23, 4; Matt. 28, 20.
The positive attributes (attributa ἐνεργητικά, positiva operativa, transeuntia, relativa) are those by which we ascribe to God, in a specific and singular sense, all the perfections which we find in His creatures. These are: life, knowledge, wisdom, will, holiness, justice, veracity, power, goodness (grace, mercy, love, longsuffering, etc.).
a. Divine life (vita) is the attribute of God by which He always is and shows Himself active. In particular, God is life 1) essentially, since He is αὐτόζωο, having life ἐν ἑαυτῷ, John 5, 26, that is, He is life in Himself and of Himself, by His own nature and essence; 2) effectively, since He is the cause and origin of all life outside Himself, Acts 17, 28; Deut. 32, 39. Negatively this attribute is expressed by immortality, 1 Tim. 6, 16, and incorruptibility, Rom. 1, 23; 1 Tim. 1, 17. In contradistinction to the idols of the heathen, God is the "living God," Acts 14, 15, to whom all creatures owe their existence, Acts 17, 25. The warning connected with this attribute may be deduced from Heb. 10, 31; the consolation from 1 Tim. 3, 15; 4, 10.
b. Divine knowledge (scientia) is the attribute of God by which He through one simple and eternal act of His mind knows all things which have been, are, and shall be, or even in any way can be, that is, all things which are conditionally future or possiblet 1 Sam. 2, 3; 1 John 3, 20; 1 Kings 8, 39; Ps. 7, 9; 34, 15; 139, 1; Prov. 15, 3. God's knowledge is distinguished from human knowledge : a) by its extent, since God knows all things (John 21, 17: omniscientia), the future things (Is. 41, 22. 23: praescientia), all possible and conditionally future or possible things (1 Sam. 23, 12; Matt. 11, 23: scientia de futuro conaitionata, scientia media) ; b) by His manner of knowing, since God knows all things whatsoever through one simple and eternal act of the mind (Deus res non per species intelligibiles, sed in se sive in esse proprio cognoscit. Homo res adspicit, Deus perspicit.) Thus God knows the very thoughts of men, 1 Kings 8, 39; Acts 15, 8; John 2, 25. The revelation of God's perfect knowledge should serve for our warning,. Is. 41, 22. 23; Ps. 139, 12, and for our consolation, Is. 66, 2; Matt. 6, 32. To describe God's perfect knowledge, our dogmaticians have divided it also into: 1) natural knowledge (scientia naturalis, essentialis), according to which God fully knows Himself; 2) free knowledge (scientia libera), according to which He knows all things outside Himself; and 3) mediate knowledge (scientia media), according to which He knows all possible and conditionally future or possible things.
In this connection we may consider the important question:" How does God's infallible foreknowledge agree with the freedom of man's will and human responsibility?" The question is important, since, on the basis of God's infallible foreknowledge, men have denied either the freedom of the will and human responsibility (Stoicism) or, on the basis of the human responsibility, the infallible foreknowledge, or omniscience, of God (Atheism, Agnosticism). While the question involves mysteries which we cannot solve in this life, Scripture nevertheless teaches the following:
a) The foreknowledge of God embraces all things and is infallible,. Ps. 139, 1-4; Rev. 3, 15. b) God's foreknowledge is not the efficient cause of the evil which He foresees. The Formula of Concord teaches correctly : "The foreknowledge of God is nothing else than that God knows all things before they happen, as it is written Dan. 2, 28. This foreknowledge extends alike over the godly and the wicked, but it is not the cause of evil, neither of sin, namely,. of doing what is wrong (which originally arises from the devil and the wicked, perverse will of man), nor of their ruin (that men should perish), for which they themselves are responsible; but it only regulates it, and fixes a limit to it how long it should last,. and all this to the end that it should serve His elect for their salvation, notwithstanding that it is evil in itself." Epitome,. XI, 3. 4.
Our confession thus distinguishes correctly a) between the divine foreknowledge and the origin of evil and b) between the divine foreknowledge in general and the special divine foreknowledge (Amos 3, 2; Gal. 4, 9 : nosse cum af!ectu et effectu), to which the saints of God owe their election and salvation. Rom. 8, 29. 30: "Whom He did foreknow, He also did predestinate." With regard to the mysteries which remain in spite of these revelations the Formula of Concord rightly exhorts all believers "not to reason in their thoughts, draw conclusions, nor inquire curiously into these matters, but adhere to His revealed Word, to which He points us.'" Thor. Decl., XI, 54-57.
When the question is asked: "Do all things happen as God foreknows them?" then indeed the answer must be in the affirmative. When the question is asked: "Do men act under coercion?" the answer must be in the negative. Judas's betrayal of Christ was a voluntary performance of evil, John 14, 26-30, just as Peter's confession of Christ was a voluntary performance of good, John 6, 65--71. Neither acted under coercion, though the one was under sin, the other under grace. Holy Scripture rigorously rules out all fatalistic or deterministic speculations.
While there is neither a prius nor a posterius in God, but all things are ever present before Him, Heb. 4, 13, Holy Scripture nevertheless in accommodation to our feeble understanding speaks of God's foreknowledge (praescientia), since we have no conception at all of the perpetual "to-day" or "present," Ps. 2, 7. Just so the Christian theologian must therefore speak when he describes the divine knowledge with respect to future events. The question whether prescience may be ascribed also to men, angels, and departed spirits must be answered in the negative, Matt. 24, 36; Mark 13, 32.
c. Divine wisdom (sapientia) is that attribute of God by which He disposes and ordains all things in a most admirable manner for the attainment of His end, Job 12, 13; 28, 20; Rom. 11, as: God's wisdom stands in close connection with His knowledge, so that the two often appear together (Rom. 11, 33: σοφίας καὶ γνώσεως; 1 Cor. 12, 8: λόγος σοφίας, λόγος γνώσεως). While the exact distinction between the two attributes is not clearly stated in Scripture, we may for all practical purposes distinguish between them as we do between intelligence and wisdom, so that oorpla denotes the practical application of YJ'Wat,. Scripture ascribes to God wisdom especially a) in the re3lm of nature (Ps. 104, 24: creation and preservation) and b) in the realm of grace (1 Cor. 2, 6 ff.). Hence we should not criticize the wisdom of the only-wise God, 1 Tim. 1, 17; Rom. 16, 27, as Modernists and atheists do when they reject Scripture as the only source of truth and blaspheme the divine method of creation (Mosaic creation report) and redemption (satisfactio vicaria), but we should rather admire and adore it, Rom. 11, 33, with holy reverence and fear.
d. Divine will (voluntas) has been treated by our dogmaticians sometimes as a separate attribute and sometimes as supplementary to the divine attribute of wisdom. In that case they deduce from the will of God the attributes of holiness, justice, truth, goodness, etc. (Baier). The manner of treating the subject is immaterial as long as the doctrine that is presented is Scriptural.
As Scripture ascribes to God an intelligent mind (Rom. 11, 34: νοῦς), so it ascribes to Him also will, 1 Tim. 2, 4; John 6, 40; 1 Thess. 4, 3. The will of God is the divine essence itself, seeking that which is good and opposing that which is evil. As to the causes of the divine will (causae voluntatis divinae), Scripture describes God a) in His supreme majesty, as independent of anything outside Himself, or as absolutely sovereign in Himself, Rom. 11, 36. Viewed in this manner, God is not moved by anything but by Himself; or we may say, in Him cause and effect eoincide. Non sunt in Deo causae formaliter causantes. But Scripture speaks of God also b) from the viewpoint of human understanding; that is to say, since God in His divine essence is unintelligible to us, it leads us to distinguish in Him between cause nnd effect and to regard Him as provoked to wrath by sin, J er. 2, 19, and as moved to grace by Christ's redemption, Rom. 3, 24. In Deo runt causae virtualiter causantes. It is only when we speak of God in this Scriptural way that we can properly distinguish between Law and Gospel.
Although there is but one will in God, which is identical with His divine essence (no contradictory wills), yet, on the basis of Scripture, we may distinguish between: -
e. Divine holiness (sanctitas) is that attribute of God by which He, conformably to His own Law, desires all things that are right and good, Deut. 32, 4; Ps. 92, 15; Lev. 11, 44; 1 Pet. 1, 15. In particular, God is holy a) essentially, inasmuch as He is by His divine essence most supremely exalted over all creatures, in which sense holiness denotes God's supreme majesty and comprises all His other attributes, Is. 6, 3; John 12, 41; b) efficiently, inasmuch as He is the Author of all holiness and stands in direct opposition to sin, 1 Pet. 1, 16; Lev. 11, 44. 45. The holiness of God should move us to appear before Him with great reverence, Gen. 18, 27'; Ex. 3, 5, and, at the same time, with great boldness and confidence, since Christ by His vicarious atonement has made peace between the Holy God and sinful man, Rom. 5, 1; 5, 10; Eph. 3, 11. 12.
f. Divine justice (iustitia) is that attribute of God by which He is perfectly just and righteous in His divine essence, Ps. 92, 15, and by which He, in conformity with His own perfect, righteous essence, demands of men that which is just, Hos. 14, 9; Ps. 1, 5. 6. Hollaz fitly defines the justice of God as follows : "Justice is a divine attribute by virtue of which God wishes and does all those things which are conformed to His eternal Law, Ps. 92, 15, prescribes suitable laws to creatures, Ps. 19, 7, fulfils His promises made to men, Is. 45, 23, rewards the good, Rom. 2, 5-7; 2 Thess. 1, 6. 7, and punishes the wicked, Ps. 119, 137; Rom. 1, 32; Acts 17, 31; 2 Thess. 1, 6; Rom. 3, 8. 19." Since God is God, He is exlex, that is, He is not under the Law, but is Himself the perfect norm of justice. Deus iustus est, quia omnia suae legi conformiter vult aut facit.
The justice of God, applied to men, is a) iustitia legalis, or the divine righteousness revealed in the Law, and b) iustitia evangelica, or the divine righteousness revealed in the Gospel, which has been secured for sinners through Christ's vicarious atonement. The iustitia legalis may again be described as a) legislatoria, inasmuch as it is the norm of human righteousness, Matt. 22, 37 ff.; b) remuneratoria, inasmuch as it rewards the good, 2 Tim. 4, 8; and c) vindicativa (punitiva, ultrix), inasmuch as it punishes the evil, 2 Thess. 1, 4-10. The iustitia evangelica is the essence of the Christian religion, since upon it the salvation of man rests. The question whether God, according to His iustitia vindicativa, punishes sin adequately must be answered in the affirmative.
g. Divine veracity (veracitas) is that attribute of God by which He is unfailing in speaking the truth and keeping His promises, Num. 23, 19; Heb. 6, 18; Deut. 32, 4. The revelation of this attribute implies a peculiar condescension on the part of God, since man through unbelief doubts both the threats of the Law and the promises of the Gospel, Ps. 90, 11; Is. 53, 1; John 12, 38. Just because of human unbelief, God has graciously revealed to u.s that, while all men are liars, Ps. 116, 11; Rom. 3, 4, He Himself is Truth, Titus 1, 2; John 3, 33; Reb. 6, 18; Matt. 24, 35; John 10, 35. In view of God's veracity we should fear His wrath, Gal. 6, 7, and trust in His promises, Rom. 10, 11; Titus 1, 2.
h. Divine power (potentia) is that attribute of God by which He can accomplish everything that can possibly be done without implying any contradiction in His divine essence. Quenstedt defines the power of God (I, 293) thus: "Power is that by which God independently, through the eternal activity of His own essence, can do absolutely everything that does not involve a contradiction." (Doctr. Theol., p. 120.) God's perfect power is distinguished from the imperfect and relative power of man both with regard to manner and extent; for, with regard to the first, God's power is His will, Gen. 1, 3; Ps. 115, 3 (Deus producit volendo), while, with regard to the second, His power embraces all things that are in conformity with His perfect essence, Matt. 19, 26; Luke 1, 37. Because God bas infinite power, we must not speak of Him as if He had exhausted Himself when creating this universe (pantheism). Xor must we conclude from God's power what in our estimation He ought to do. Thus the conclusion of rationalistic theologians that, since God is almighty, He ought to forgive sin without Christ's vicarious suffering and death is a blasphemy.
God exerts His power in two ways, namely : a) by means (causae secundae) and b) without means. The first is God's ordinate power (potentia ordinata); the second is His absolute power (potentia absoluta, immediata). In both instances the same almighty power is brought into action, Ps. 33, 6-9. Whenever God works absolutely what ordinarily He accomplishes by means, we are confronted with miracles (John 2, 11: σημεῖα; Acts 2, 43: τέρατα καὶ σημεῖα). With respect to miracles we must hold, on the basis of Scripture, a) that God can perform miracles whenever He pleases, since He is the sovereign Lord and the laws of nature, which in themselves are never invariable (evolutionists), are nothing else than His own divine will applied to the things created; but b) that we should use the divinely ordained means, both in the realm of nature and of grace, and not presumptuously demand miracles on our behalf, Luke 11, 16; Matt. 12, 39. The fides heroica, which with extraordinary confidence in God performs miracles, is not judged by this rule; but let the person who endeavors to perform miracles be sure that his "faith" is really fides heroica and not presumption.
The denial of God's omnipotence on the ground that He cannot lie, steal, die, etc., must be condemned as blasphemous sophistry. Bunt sophismata, quibw; definitio rei tollitur.
i. Divine goodness (bonitas) in its objective sense is that attribute of God by which His divine essence is perfectly conformed to His divine will, or His absolute perfection, Matt. 19, 17. Relatively also the creatures of God are good, Gen. 1, 31, even after the Fall, namely, inasmuch as they are creatures of God, 1 Tim. 4, 4. However, creatures possess no essential goodness, or perfection, but are good only as God's handiwork. In contradistinction to all creatures, God alone is good, or good in and of Himself (τὸ αὐτοαγαθόν). Gerhard writes of God's goodness in this sense: "Deus est vere bonus et solus bonus et omnis bonitatis causa." The Scriptural truth that God alone is absolutely and in Himself good (essential Goodness) and that men are only relatively, or dependently, good should preserve us from pride and envy and move us to humility and gratitude, 1 Cor. 4, 7; 1 Pet. 2, 1. Gerhard writes: "All good things come down upon us and our neighbor from God; who is envious of his neighbor opposes God Himself, the Giver of all gifts, and is truly a θεόμαχος (a God-fighter)."
While divine goodness in its objective sense denotes the absolute divine perfection, or the divine essential goodness, in its subjective sense it denotes His gracious disposition and conduct toward His creatures, Ps. 145, 9; 36, 6. 7. According to Scripture, God is good a) in general, to all creatures, Ps. 136; b) in particular, to all men, Matt. 5, 45; c) more especially, to men as sinners, John 3, 16; and d) in a most special sense, to His believing saints, Rom. 8, 28; 1 Cor. 2, 9; Deut. 33, 3; John 16, 27. God's goodness toward us should always move us to grateful love to Him, 1 John 4, 19.
Under the attribute of divine goodness (bonitas relativa), we may group a) divine grace, as goodness unmerited by men, Titus 3, 5; Rom. 3, 24; b) divine mercy, as goodness toward men in need, Luke 1, 78. 79; c) divine love, as goodness desiring communion with men, John 3, 16; d) divine patience and longsuffering, as goodness waiting for man's repentance, 1 Pet. 3, 20; 2 Pet. 3, 9. These attributes deserve consideration above all others, for they are the true scope of Scripture and the great theme in which Christian preaching centers, 1 Cor. 2, 2. The entire Gospelmessage may be summed up in the divine attribute of goodness, for what it proclaims is nothing else than the manifestation of divine grace, love, mercy, long-suffering, friendliness, etc., in Christ Jesus, our Lord, 1 John 4, 9. The revelation of all other divine attributes would be dreadful indeed were it not for God's goodness in Christ. But as God is good, so those who through faith in Christ have become His dear children should likewise be good, gracious, merciful, Luke 6, 36; Matt. 5, 44. 45; Eph. 4, 32; Col. 3, 12.
God's goodness has been objected to on the ground that His punishments are frequently severe and destructive. While Scripture does not deny this fact, Matt. 24, 21. 22, it points out the great truth that even God's dire punishments are motivated by His saving love ; for by them He calls sinners to repentance, Luke 13, 1-3. However, all who deny the Bible as the only source of faith, the Triune God as the only true God, and Christ as the only Savior from sin can never hope to share in the eternal blessings of God's goodness, grace, and love.